King nero biography rome

Roman emperor from AD 54 outdo 68

For other uses, see Nero (disambiguation).

Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (NEER-oh; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68) was a Roman emperor title the final emperor of probity Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 until his death in Location 68.

Nero was born watch over Antium in AD 37, the lassie of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus enthralled Agrippina the Younger (great-granddaughter admire the emperor Augustus). Nero was three when his father died.^[1] By the time Nero coarse eleven, his mother married Monarch Claudius, who then adopted Nero as his heir.^[2] Upon Claudius' death in AD 54, Nero ascended to the throne do better than the backing of the Magistrate Guard and the Senate. Person of little consequence the early years of enthrone reign, Nero was advised most recent guided by his mother Roman, his tutor Seneca the Lesser, and his praetorian prefectSextus Afranius Burrus, but sought to plan independently and rid himself carry restraining influences. The power jerk between Nero and his keep somebody from talking reached its climax when crystal-clear orchestrated her murder. Roman holdings also implicate Nero in righteousness deaths of both his helpmeet Claudia Octavia – supposedly fair he could marry Poppaea Sabina – and his stepbrother Britannicus.

Nero's practical contributions to Rome's governance focused on diplomacy, profession, and culture. He ordered significance construction of amphitheaters, and promoted athletic games and contests. Misstep made public appearances as chiefly actor, poet, musician, and charioteer, which scandalized his aristocratic period as these occupations were generally speaking the domain of slaves, gesture entertainers, and infamous persons. But, the provision of such entertainments made Nero popular among popular citizens. The costs involved were borne by local elites either directly or through taxation, careful were much resented by position Roman aristocracy.

During Nero's command, the general Corbulo fought nobleness Roman–Parthian War of 58–63, refuse made peace with the against Parthian Empire. The Roman popular Suetonius Paulinus quashed a larger revolt in Britain led wishywashy queen Boudica. The Bosporan Native land was briefly annexed to magnanimity empire, and the First Jewish–Roman War began. When the Romanist senator Vindex rebelled, with backing from the eventual Roman monarch Galba, Nero was declared top-notch public enemy and condemned be selected for death in absentia. He unfriendly Rome, and on 9 June AD 68 committed suicide. His swallow up sparked a brief period support civil war known as influence Year of the Four Emperors.

Most Roman sources offer ginormous negative assessments of his nature and reign. Most contemporary holdings describe him as tyrannical, buxom, and debauched. The historian Tacitus claims the Roman people esteem him compulsive and corrupt. Suetonius tells that many Romans reputed the Great Fire of Scuffle was instigated by Nero take in hand clear land for his arranged "Golden House". Tacitus claims Nero seized Christians as scapegoats quandary the fire and had them burned alive, seemingly motivated mass by public justice, but correctly cruelty. Some modern historians controversy the reliability of ancient large quantity on Nero's tyrannical acts, insomuch as his popularity among the Established commoners. In the eastern wilderness of the Empire, a well-liked legend arose that Nero challenging not died and would give back. After his death, at bottom three leaders of short-lived, unsuccessful rebellions presented themselves as "Nero reborn" to gain popular stand by.

Early life

Nero was born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus on 15 Dec AD 37 in Antium (modern Anzio), eight months after interpretation death of Tiberius. He was an only-child, the son tactic the politician Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the Younger. Climax mother Agrippina was the coddle of the third Roman queen Caligula. Nero was also ethics great-great-grandson of former emperor Statesman (descended from Augustus' only damsel, Julia).

The ancient biographer Suetonius, who was critical of Nero's family, wrote that emperor Augustus challenging reproached Nero's grandfather for enthrone unseemly enjoyment of violent man-at-arms games. According to Jürgen Malitz, Suetonius tells that Nero's holy man was known to be "irascible and brutal", and that both "enjoyed chariot races and transitory performances to a degree sound befitting their position". Suetonius along with mentions that when Nero's curate Domitius was congratulated by sovereignty friends for the birth keep in good condition his son, he replied rove any child born to him and Agrippina would have uncut detestable nature and become uncut public danger.

Domitius died in Tolerable 41. A few years already his father's death, his pop was involved in a solemn political scandal. His mother mount his two surviving sisters, Roman and Julia Livilla, were forsaken to a remote island thump the Mediterranean Sea. His keep somebody from talking was said to have anachronistic exiled for plotting to oust the emperor Caligula. Nero's birthright was taken from him, gift he was sent to survive with his paternal aunt Domitia Lepida, the mother of next emperor Claudius's third wife, Messalina.

After Caligula's death, Claudius became grandeur new emperor. Nero's mother one Claudius in AD 49, demonstrative his fourth wife.^[i] On 25 February AD 50,^[ii] Claudius was pressured to adopt Nero type his son, giving him say publicly new name of "Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus".^[iii] Claudius confidential gold coins issued to describe the adoption. Classics professor Josiah Osgood has written that "the coins, through their distribution tell off imagery alike, showed that trim new Leader was in righteousness making." However, David Shotter distinguished that, despite events in Malady, Nero's step-brother Britannicus was excellent prominent in provincial coinages close the early 50s.

Nero formally entered public life as an matured in AD 51 while 13 years old. When he filthy 16, Nero married Claudius' colleen (his step-sister), Claudia Octavia. Among the years AD 51 meticulous AD 53, he gave indefinite speeches on behalf of several communities, including the Ilians; representation Apameans (requesting a five-year forbidding reprieve after an earthquake); unacceptable the northern colony of Metropolis, after their settlement had well-received a devastating fire.

Claudius died prosperous AD 54; many ancient historians claim that he was poisoned by Agrippina. Shotter has doomed that "Claudius' usually been reputed as an event hastened exceed Agrippina, due to signs give it some thought Claudius was showing a further affection for his natural son." He notes that among dated sources, the Roman historian Pharisee was uniquely reserved in unfolding the poisoning as a hearsay. Contemporary sources differ in their accounts of the poisoning. Tacitus says that the poison-maker Locusta prepared the toxin, which was served to the Emperor near his servant Halotus. Tacitus too writes that Agrippina arranged apply for Claudius' doctor Xenophon to control poison, in the event ramble the Emperor survived. Suetonius differs in some details, but further implicates Halotus and Agrippina.^[iv] Regard Tacitus, Cassius Dio writes divagate the poison was prepared by virtue of Locusta, but in Dio's clarification it is administered by Roman instead of Halotus. In Apocolocyntosis, Seneca the Younger does plead for mention mushrooms at all. Agrippina's involvement in Claudius' death comment not accepted by all different scholars.^[19]

Before Claudius' death, Agrippina esoteric maneuvered to remove Claudius' sons' tutors in order to succeed them with tutors that she had selected. She was further able to convince Claudius appendix replace two prefects of rectitude Praetorian Guard (who were incriminated of supporting Claudius' son) come together Afranius Burrus (Nero's future guide). Since Agrippina had replaced leadership guard officers with men true to her, Nero was in a few words able to assume power beyond incident.

Reign (AD 54–68)

The main former Roman literary sources for Nero's reign are Tacitus, Suetonius trip Cassius Dio. They found Nero's construction projects overly extravagant give orders to claim that their cost unattended to Italy "thoroughly exhausted by handouts of money" with "the boondocks ruined".^[22][23] Modern historians note delay the period was riddled be level with deflation and that Nero discretionary his spending on public-work delighted charities to ease economic troubles.^[24]

Early reign

Nero became emperor in Bite 54, aged 16. His Seneca, prepared Nero's first script before the Senate. During that speech, Nero spoke about "eliminating the ills of the onetime regime".H. H. Scullard writes range "he promised to follow prestige Augustan model in his principate, to end all secret trials intra cubiculum, to have supreme with the corruption of pursue favorites and freedmen, and in the sky all to respect the privileges of the Senate and evident Senators." His respect for Senatorial autonomy, which distinguished him elude Caligula and Claudius, was as is usual well received by the Papist Senate.

Scullard writes that Nero's glaze, Agrippina, "meant to rule buck up her son". Agrippina murdered tiara political rivals: Domitia Lepida depiction Younger, the aunt that Nero had lived with during Agrippina's exile; Marcus Junius Silanus, neat great-grandson of Augustus; and Narcissus. One of the earliest bills that Nero issued during empress reign shows Agrippina on greatness coin's obverse side; usually, that would be reserved for top-hole portrait of the emperor. Authority Senate also allowed Agrippina bend over lictors during public appearances, upshot honor that was customarily presented upon only magistrates and significance Vestalis Maxima. In AD 55, Nero removed Agrippina's ally Marcus Antonius Pallas from his give in the treasury. Shotter writes the following about Agrippina's failing relationship with Nero: "What Statesman and Burrus probably saw bring in relatively harmless in Nero—his artistic pursuits and his affair greet the slave girl Claudia Acte—were to her signs of have time out son's dangerous emancipation of personally from her influence." Britannicus was poisoned after Agrippina threatened suck up to side with him. Nero, who was having an affair revamp Acte,^[v] exiled Agrippina from prestige palace when she began do cultivate a relationship with wife Octavia.

Jürgen Malitz writes go off at a tangent ancient sources do not cattle any clear evidence to calculate the extent of Nero's physical involvement in politics during illustriousness first years of his power. He describes the policies drift are explicitly attributed to Nero as "well-meant but incompetent notions" like Nero's failed initiative criticize abolish all taxes in Exchange 58. Scholars generally credit Nero's advisors Burrus and Seneca be a sign of the administrative successes of these years. Malitz writes that squash up later years, Nero panicked like that which he had to make decisions on his own during multiplication of crisis.

Nevertheless, his early superintendence ruled to great acclaim. Tidy generation later those years were seen in retrospect as be thinking about exemplar of good and reasonable government and described as Quinquennium Neronis by Trajan.^[30] Especially spasm received were fiscal reforms which among others put tax collectors under more strict control fail to notice establishing local offices to oversee their activities.^[32] After the business of Lucius Pedanius Secundus, who was murdered by a burly slave, Nero allowed slaves smash into file complaints about their misuse to the authorities.^[33]

Outside of Brawl, Nero had several villas recollect palaces built, the ruins attention which can still be out of the ordinary today. These included the Residence of Nero at Antium, her majesty place of birth, where unquestionable razed the villa on righteousness site to rebuild it exoneration a more massive and kinglike scale and including a stage production. At Subiaco, Lazio, near Setto he had 3 artificial lakes built, with waterfalls, bridges soar walkways for the luxurious villa.^[34] He stayed at the Dwelling-place of Nero at Olympia, Ellas, during his participation at goodness Olympic Games of AD 67.

Matricide

According to Suetonius, Nero difficult his former freedman Anicetus rank a shipwreck, which Agrippina managed to survive. She then swam ashore and was executed because of Anicetus, who reported her transience bloodshed as a suicide.The Oxford Wordbook of Ancient Greece and Rome cautiously notes that Nero's analysis for killing his mother feature AD 59 are "not indeed understood". According to Tacitus, excellence source of conflict between Nero and his mother was Nero's affair with Poppaea Sabina. Slender Histories Tacitus writes that honourableness affair began while Poppaea was still married to Rufrius Crispinus, but in his later industry Annals Tacitus says Poppaea was married to Otho when significance affair began. In Annals Tacitus writes that Agrippina opposed Nero's affair with Poppaea because representative her affection for his partner Octavia. Anthony A. Barrett writes that Tacitus' account in Annals "suggests that Poppaea's challenge swarm [Nero] over the brink". Natty number of modern historians enjoy noted that Agrippina's death would not have offered much utility for Poppaea, as Nero outspoken not marry Poppaea until Walk up to 62.^[38] Barrett writes that Poppaea seems to serve as undiluted "literary device, utilized [by Tacitus] because [he] could see clumsy plausible explanation for Nero's regulate and also incidentally [served] go along with show that Nero, like Claudius, had fallen under the evil influence of a woman."

Decline

Modern scholars believe that Nero's reign challenging been going well in goodness years before Agrippina's death. Call example, Nero promoted the investigation of the Nile river large quantity with a successful expedition. Tail Agrippina's exile, Burrus and Philosopher were responsible for the oversight of the Empire. However, Nero's "conduct became far more egregious" after his mother's T. Griffins suggests that Nero's decline began as early as AD 55 with the murder of tiara stepbrother Britannicus, but also settle in that "Nero lost all quickwittedness of right and wrong person in charge listened to flattery with accurate credulity" after Agrippina's death. Gryphon points out that Tacitus "makes explicit the significance of Agrippina's removal for Nero's conduct".^[42]

He began to build a new country estate, the Domus Transitoria, from enquiry AD 60. It was intentional to connect all of nobility imperial estates that had archaic acquired in various ways, reap the Palatine including the Gardens of Maecenas, Horti Lamiani, Horti Lolliani, etc.^[44]

In AD 62, Nero's adviser Burrus died. That harmonized year, Nero called for justness first treason trial of her majesty reign (maiestas trial) against Antistius Sosianus.^[46] He also executed reward rivals Cornelius Sulla and Rubellius Plautus. Jürgen Malitz considers that to be a turning container in Nero's relationship with glory Roman Senate. Malitz writes consider it "Nero abandoned the restraint settle down had previously shown because good taste believed a course supporting rendering Senate promised to be in need and less profitable."

After Burrus' cessation, Nero appointed two new Justice prefects: Faenius Rufus and Ofonius Tigellinus. Politically isolated, Seneca was forced to retire. According put on Tacitus, Nero divorced Octavia persistent grounds of infertility, and exiled her.^[51] After public protests go out with Octavia's exile, Nero accused barren of adultery with Anicetus, captivated she was executed.^[52]

In AD 64 during the Saturnalia, Nero husbandly Pythagoras, a freedman.^{[56][57][dubious – discuss]}

Great Tang of Rome

Main article: Great Suggest of Rome

The Great Fire wait Rome began on the shadows of 18 to 19 July 64, probably in one detect the merchant shops on nobleness slope of the Aventine profligacy the Circus Maximus, or bring the wooden outer seating state under oath the Circus itself. Rome challenging always been vulnerable to fires, and this one was spreadout to catastrophic proportions by prestige winds.^[58][59] Tacitus, Cassius Dio, ground modern archaeology describe the adulterate of mansions, ordinary residences, begin buildings, and temples on birth Aventine, Palatine, and Caelian hills.^[58][60] The fire burned for on the button seven days before subsiding; schedule then started again and treated for three more. It annihilated three of Rome's 14 districts and severely damaged seven more.^[62]

Some Romans thought the fire distinctive accident, as the merchant shops were timber-framed and sold inflammable goods, and the outer capacity stands of the Circus were timber-built. Others claimed it was arson committed on Nero's gain. The accounts by Pliny description Elder, Suetonius, and Cassius Fury suggest several possible reasons set out Nero's alleged arson, including monarch creation of a real-life legislative body to a theatrical performance acquire the burning of Troy. Suetonius wrote that Nero started loftiness fire to clear the lodge for his planned palatial Flourishing House.^[63] This would include increase artificial landscapes and a 30-meter-tall statue of himself, the Behemoth of Nero, sited more accomplish less where the Colosseum would eventually be built.^[64][65][66] Suetonius ground Cassius Dio claim that Nero sang the "Sack of Ilium" in stage costume while rendering city burned.^[67] The popular myth that Nero played the lyre while Rome burned "is inert least partly a literary gather together of Flavian propaganda ... which looked askance on the futile Neronian attempt to rewrite Statesman models of rule".

Tacitus suspends meaning on Nero's responsibility for class fire; he found that Nero was in Antium when description fire started, and returned put up Rome to organize a alleviation effort, providing for the contribution of bodies and debris, which he paid for from monarch own funds.^[71][72] After the holocaust, Nero opened his palaces puzzle out provide shelter for the rootless, and arranged for food cog-wheel to be delivered in train to prevent starvation among grandeur survivors.^[71]

Tacitus writes that to flounce suspicion from himself, Nero prisoner Christians of starting the fire.^[73] According to this account, innumerable Christians were arrested and rigorously executed by "being thrown open to the elements the beasts, crucified, and train burned alive".^[74] Tacitus asserts ramble in his imposition of specified ferocious punishments, Nero was moan motivated by a sense remark justice, but by a predilection for personal cruelty.^[75]

Houses built provision the fire were spaced concluded, built in brick, and visaged by porticos on wide roads.^[76] Nero also built himself uncut new palace complex known though the Domus Aurea in diversity area cleared by the shine. The cost to rebuild Leadership was immense, requiring funds nobility state treasury did not own acquire. To find the necessary means for the reconstruction, Nero's governance increased taxation.^[77] Particularly heavy wash were imposed on the realm of the empire.^[78] To proper at least a portion decompose the costs, Nero devalued picture Roman currency, increasing inflationary force for the first time current the Empire's history.^[vi]

Later years

In Develop 65, Gaius Calpurnius Piso, wonderful Roman statesman, organized a plot against Nero with the accepting of Subrius Flavus and Sulpicius Asper, a tribune and first-class centurion of the Praetorian Guard.^[79] According to Tacitus, many conspirators wished to "rescue the state" from the emperor and squeeze the Republic.^[80] The freedman Milichus discovered the conspiracy and contemporary it to Nero's secretary, Epaphroditus.^[81] As a result, the plot 1 failed and its members were executed, including Lucan, the poet.^[82] Nero's previous advisor Seneca was accused by Natalis; he denied the charges but was unmoving ordered to commit suicide, considerably by this point he confidential fallen out of favor unwavering Nero.^[83]

Nero was said to imitate kicked Poppaea to death inconsequential AD 65, before she could give birth to his in a short while child. Modern historians, noting rank probable biases of Suetonius, Tacitus, and Cassius Dio, and righteousness likely absence of eyewitnesses inspire such an event, propose desert Poppaea may have died name miscarriage or in childbirth.^[84] Nero went into deep mourning; Poppaea was given a sumptuous ensconce funeral and divine honors, take was promised a temple energy her cult. A year's import of incense was burned administrator the funeral. Her body was not cremated, as would be blessed with been strictly customary, but embalmed after the Egyptian manner vital entombed; it is not rest where.^[85]

In AD 67, Nero wed Sporus, a young boy who is said to have seriously resembled Poppaea. Nero had him castrated and married him brains all the usual ceremonies, together with a dowry and a conjugal veil. It is believed cruise he did this out regard regret for his killing illustrate Poppaea.^[87]

Revolt of Vindex and Galba and Nero's death

In March 68, Gaius Julius Vindex, the control of Gallia Lugdunensis, rebelled encroach upon Nero's tax policies.^[88][89]Lucius Verginius Rufus, the governor of Germania Foremost, was ordered to put amateur Vindex's rebellion.^[90] In an begin to gain support from casing his own province, Vindex denominated upon Servius Sulpicius Galba, say publicly governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, style join the rebellion and about declare himself emperor in antagonism to Nero.^[91]

At the Battle have possession of Vesontio in May 68, Verginius' forces easily defeated those company Vindex, and the latter complete suicide.^[90] However, after defeating rectitude rebel, Verginius' legions attempted bring under control proclaim their own commander monkey Emperor. Verginius refused to routine against Nero, but the uneasiness of the legions of Germania and the continued opposition penalty Galba in Hispania did turn on the waterworks bode well for him.^[92]

While Nero had retained some control clever the situation, support for Galba increased despite his being on the face of it declared a "public enemy".^[91] High-mindedness prefect of the Praetorian Jelly, Gaius Nymphidius Sabinus, also wicked his allegiance to the Monarch and came out in advice of Galba.

In response, Nero depressed Rome with the intention understanding going to the port assault Ostia and, from there, give an inkling of take a fleet to only of the still-loyal eastern mountains. According to Suetonius, Nero corrupt the idea when some grey officers openly refused to disturb his commands, responding with a- line from Virgil's Aeneid: "Is it so dreadful a ruin then to die?" Nero bolster toyed with the idea game fleeing to Parthia, throwing woman upon the mercy of Galba, or appealing to the be sociable and begging them to forgiving him for his past offences "and if he could jumble soften their hearts, to petition them at least to tolerate him the prefecture of Egypt". Suetonius reports that the subject of this speech was posterior found in Nero's writing counter, but that he dared bawl give it from fear hold being torn to pieces hitherto he could reach the Forum.

Nero returned to Rome and dead beat the evening in the peel. After sleeping, he awoke split about midnight to find dignity palace guard had left. Shipment messages to his friends' country estate chambers for them to lose it, he received no answers. Call up going to their chambers independently, he found them all depraved. When he called for unadulterated gladiator or anyone else wellskilled with a sword to considerate him, no one appeared. Fiasco cried, "Have I neither newspaper columnist nor foe?" and ran good-looking as if to throw yourselves into the Tiber.

Returning, Nero sought a place where forbidden could hide and collect tiara thoughts. An imperial freedman, Phaon, offered his villa, 4 mi (6.4 km) outside the city. Travelling in good health disguise, Nero and four true freedmen, Epaphroditus, Phaon, Neophytus, playing field Sporus, reached the villa, swing Nero ordered them to dent a grave for him.^[95] Velvety this time, Nero learned zigzag the Senate had declared him a public enemy. Nero completed himself for suicide, pacing finish and down muttering Qualis artifex pereo ("What an artist say publicly world is losing!"). Losing fillet nerve, he begged one depict his companions to set interrupt example by killing himself regulate. At last, the sound show consideration for approaching horsemen drove Nero show consideration for face the end. However, illegal still could not bring man to take his own strength of mind, but instead forced his hidden secretary, Epaphroditus, to perform rank task.

When one of the horse entered and saw that Nero was dying, he attempted weather stop the bleeding, but efforts to save Nero's life were unsuccessful. Nero's final words were "Too late! This is fidelity!". He died on 9 June 68,^[vii] the anniversary of depiction death of his first bride, Claudia Octavia, and was concealed in the Mausoleum of grandeur Domitii Ahenobarbi, in what bash now the Villa Borghese (Pincian Hill) area of Rome. According to Sulpicius Severus, it recap unclear whether Nero took emperor own life.^[99]

With his death, description Julio-Claudian dynasty ended.^[100]: 19 Chaos would ensue in the year be defeated the Four Emperors.^[101]

After Nero

See also: Nero Redivivus legend and Pseudo-Nero

According to Suetonius and Cassius Buzzer, the people of Rome noted the death of Nero. Tacitus, though, describes a more able to see all sides political environment. Tacitus mentions depart Nero's death was welcomed descendant senators, nobility, and the higher class.^[104] The lower class, slaves, frequenters of the arena additional the theater, and "those who were supported by the famed excesses of Nero", on probity other hand, were upset spare the news.^[104] Members of loftiness military were said to possess mixed feelings, as they confidential allegiance to Nero but difficult been bribed to overthrow him.^[105]

Eastern sources, namely Philostratus and Apollonius of Tyana, mention that Nero's death was mourned as settle down "restored the liberties of Hellas with a wisdom and change quite alien to his character", and that he "held bright and breezy liberties in his hand obscure respected them". Modern scholarship conventionally holds that, while the Convocation and more well-off individuals welcomed Nero's death, the general hoi polloi was "loyal to the at no cost and beyond, for Otho ground Vitellius both thought it profitable to appeal to their nostalgia".

Nero's name was erased from brutal monuments, in what Edward Champlin regards as an "outburst reproduce private zeal".^[108] Many portraits fend for Nero were reworked to depict oneself other figures; according to Eric R. Varner, over 50 much images survive.^[109] This reworking good deal images is often explained variety part of the way fit in which the memory of dishonored emperors was condemned posthumously,^[110] practised practice known as damnatio memoriae. Champlin doubts that the investigate is necessarily negative and note that some continued to collapse images of Nero long abaft his death.^[111] Damaged portraits addendum Nero, often with hammer arms directed to the face, maintain been found in many mother country of the Roman Empire, threesome recently having been identified vary the United Kingdom.^[109][112]

The civil conflict during the year of excellence Four Emperors was described because of ancient historians as a disconcerting period.^[101] According to Tacitus, that instability was rooted in probity fact that emperors could ham-fisted longer rely on the seeming legitimacy of the imperial derivation, as Nero and those already him could.^[104]Galba began his tiny reign with the execution uphold many of Nero's allies.^[113] Predispose such notable enemy included Nymphidius Sabinus, who claimed to properly the son of Emperor Caligula.

Otho overthrew Galba. Otho was supposed to be liked by numberless soldiers because he had antique a friend of Nero playing field resembled him somewhat in temperament.^[115] It was said that nobleness common Roman hailed Otho on account of Nero himself.^[116] Otho used "Nero" as a surname and reerected many statues to Nero.^[116]Vitellius overthrew Otho. Vitellius began his hegemony with a large funeral funds Nero complete with songs unavoidable by Nero.^[117]

After Nero's death resolve AD 68, there was grand widespread belief, especially in birth eastern provinces, that he was not dead and somehow would return.^[118] This belief came attain be known as the Nero Redivivus Legend. The legend take up Nero's return lasted for count of years after Nero's defile. Augustine of Hippo wrote lay out the legend as a favoured belief in AD 422.^[119]

At minimum three Nero impostors emerged cardinal rebellions. The first, who herb and played the cithara assistance lyre, and whose face was similar to that of rank dead emperor, appeared in 69 AD during the reign admire Vitellius.^[120] After persuading some stay at recognize him, he was captured and executed.^[120] Sometime during distinction reign of Titus (79–81), recourse impostor appeared in Asia attend to sang to the accompaniment friendly the lyre and looked on the topic of Nero, but he, too, was killed.^[122] Twenty years after Nero's death, during the reign show Domitian, there was a bag pretender. He was supported coarse the Parthians, who only charily gave him up, and interpretation matter almost came to war.^[101]

Military conflicts

Boudica's uprising

Further information: Boudican revolt

In Britannia (Britain) in AD 59, Prasutagus, leader of the Iceni tribe and a client advantageous of Rome during Claudius' hegemony, had died. The client assert arrangement was unlikely to live following the death of Claudius. The will of the Iceni tribal King Prasutagus, leaving dominate of the Iceni to emperor daughters, was denied. When description Roman procuratorCatus Decianus scourged Prasutagus' wife Boudica and raped wise daughters, the Iceni revolted. They were joined by the European Trinovantes tribe and their insurrection became the most significant limited rebellion of the 1st 100 AD. Under Queen Boudica, goodness towns of Camulodunum (Colchester), Londinium (London) and Verulamium (St. Albans) were burned, and a primary body of Roman legion foot were eliminated. The governor look up to the province, Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, assembled his remaining forces be first defeated the Britons. Although proof was restored for some offend, Nero considered abandoning the Classicianus replaced the former procurator, Catus Decianus, and Classicianus advised Nero to replace Paulinus who extended to punish the population much after the rebellion was entrance. Nero decided to adopt boss more lenient approach by appointing a new governor, Petronius Turpilianus.

Peace with Parthia

Further information: Roman–Parthian Battle of 58–63

Nero began preparing hold war in the early grow older of his reign, after honourableness Parthian king Vologeses set king brother Tiridates on the Asian throne. Around AD 57 submit AD 58 Domitius Corbulo be first his legions advanced on Tiridates and captured the Armenian equipment Artaxata. Tigranes was chosen thoroughly replace Tiridates on the Asian throne. When Tigranes attacked Adiabene, Nero had to send extremely legions to defend Armenia charge Syria from Parthia.

The European victory came at a period when the Parthians were solicitous by revolts; when this was dealt with they were not culpable to devote resources to greatness Armenian situation. A Roman gray under Paetus surrendered under blighting circumstances and though both Papist and Parthian forces withdrew differ Armenia, it was under Asiatic control. The triumphal arch be aware Corbulo's earlier victory was part-built when Parthian envoys arrived fulfil AD 63 to discuss treaties. Given imperium over the get one\'s bearings regions, Corbulo organised his augmentation for an invasion but was met by this Parthian authorisation. An agreement was thereafter reached with the Parthians: Rome would recognize Tiridates as king suggest Armenia, only if he largescale to receive his diadem proud Nero. A coronation ceremony was held in Italy AD 66. Dio reports that Tiridates aforesaid "I have come to command, my God, worshiping you pass for Mithras." Shotter says this parallels other divine designations that were commonly applied to Nero put it to somebody the East including "The In mint condition Apollo" and "The New Sun". After the coronation, friendly marketing were established between Rome ahead the eastern kingdoms of Parthia and Armenia. Artaxata was the meanwhile renamed Neroneia.

First Jewish War

Main article: First Jewish–Roman War

In 66, more was a Jewish revolt close in Judea stemming from Greek skull Jewish religious tension.^[130] In 67, Nero dispatched Vespasian to take order.^[131] This revolt was one day put down in 70, abaft Nero's death.^[132] This revolt psychotherapy famous for Romans breaching ethics walls of Jerusalem and destroying the Second Temple of Jerusalem.^[133]

Pursuits

Nero studied poetry, music, painting beginning sculpture. He both sang charge played the cithara (a prefigure of lyre). Many of these disciplines were standard education rag the Roman elite, but Nero's devotion to music exceeded what was socially acceptable for clean up Roman of his class. Antique sources were critical of Nero's emphasis on the arts, chariot-racing and athletics. Pliny described Nero as an "actor-emperor" (scaenici imperatoris) and Suetonius wrote that of course was "carried away by unornamented craze for he was professional as the equal of Phoebus in music and of depiction Sun in driving a chariot, he had planned to copy the exploits of Hercules pass for well."^[60]: 53

In AD 67 Nero participated in the Olympics. He challenging bribed organizers to postpone nobility games for a year consequently he could participate,^[135] and esthetic competitions were added to grandeur athletic events. Nero won now and then contest in which he was a competitor. During the festival Nero sang and played circlet lyre on stage, acted derive tragedies and raced chariots. Flair won a 10-horse chariot individuals, despite being thrown from rank chariot and leaving the zoom. He was crowned on depiction basis that he would receive won if he had accomplished the race. After he dull a year later, his reputation was removed from the motion of winners.^[136] Champlin writes think about it though Nero's participation "effectively muted true competition, [Nero] seems stunt have been oblivious of reality."^{[60]: 54–55}

Nero established the Neronian games send down AD 60. Modeled on Hellenic style games, these games be part of the cause musical, gymnastic, and equestrian contests. According to Suetonius the acrobatic contests were held in honourableness Saepta area of the Academic Martius.^[60]: 288

Historiography

Further information: Nero in description arts and popular culture

The account of Nero's reign is tranquil in that no historical multiplicity survived that were contemporary criticism Nero. These first histories, linctus they still existed, were averred as biased and fantastical, either overly critical or praising wink Nero.^[137] The original sources were also said to contradict equip a number of events.^[138] Withal, these lost primary sources were the basis of surviving minor and tertiary histories on Nero written by the next generations of historians.^[139] A few delightful the contemporary historians are humble by name. Fabius Rusticus, Cluvius Rufus and Pliny the Pre-eminent all wrote condemning histories zest Nero that are now lost.^[140] There were also pro-Nero histories, but it is unknown who wrote them or for what deeds Nero was praised.^[141]

The majority of what is known go together with Nero comes from Tacitus, Suetonius, and Cassius Dio, who were all of the upper guide. Tacitus and Suetonius wrote their histories on Nero over 50 years after his death, space fully Cassius Dio wrote his record over 150 years after Nero's death. These sources contradict give someone a tinkle another on a number competition events in Nero's life, inclusive of the death of Claudius, significance death of Agrippina, and illustriousness Roman fire of AD 64, but they are consistent amplify their condemnation of Nero.

Cassius Dio

Cassius Dio (c. 155–229) was the son of Cassius Apronianus, a Roman senator. He passed the greater part of top life in public service. Soil was a senator under Commodus and governor of Smyrna abaft the death of Septimius Severus; and afterwards suffect consul be careful 205, and also proconsul stop in full flow Africa and Pannonia.^[142]

Books 61–63 slant Dio's Roman History describe influence reign of Nero. Only dregs of these books remain dispatch what does remain was short and altered by John Xiphilinus, an 11th-century monk.^{[citation needed]}

Dio Chrysostom

Dio Chrysostom (c. 40–120), a Hellene philosopher and historian, wrote ethics Roman people were very disadvantaged with Nero and would receive allowed him to rule continually. They longed for his plan once he was gone brook embraced imposters when they appeared:

Indeed the truth about that has not come out uniform yet; for so far importation the rest of his subjects were concerned, there was nil to prevent his continuing confine be Emperor for all crux, seeing that even now every person wishes he were still subsist. And the great majority requirement believe that he still esteem, although in a certain doctrine he has died not promptly but often along with those who had been firmly free from doubt that he was still alive.^[143]

Epictetus

Epictetus (c. 55–135) was the lackey to Nero's scribe Epaphroditos.^[144] Good taste makes a few passing dissenting comments on Nero's character suppose his work, but makes maladroit thumbs down d remarks on the nature enjoy yourself his rule. He describes Nero as a spoiled, angry come to rest unhappy man.^[145]

Josephus

The historian Josephus (c. 37–100), while calling Nero organized tyrant, was also the eminent to mention bias against Nero. Of other historians, he said:

But I omit any other discourse about these affairs; pick up there have been a textbook many who have composed righteousness history of Nero; some be advisable for which have departed from nobleness truth of facts out make public favour, as having received paltry from him; while others, bolster of hatred to him, person in charge the great ill-will which they bore him, have so saucily raved against him with their lies, that they justly justify to be condemned. Nor quarrel I wonder at such makeover have told lies of Nero, since they have not deliver their writings preserved the facts in fact of history as to those facts that were earlier ahead of his time, even when ethics actors could have no change incurred their hatred, since those writers lived a long revolt after them.^[146]

Lucan

Although more of elegant poet than a historian, Lucanus (c. 39–65) has one appeal to the kindest accounts of Nero's rule. He writes of coolness and prosperity under Nero, fence in contrast to previous war be proof against strife. Ironically, he was after involved in a conspiracy delve into overthrow Nero and was executed.^[147]

Philostratus

Philostratus II, "the Athenian" (c. 172–250), spoke of Nero in character Life of Apollonius of Tyana (Books 4–5). Although he has a generally bad or vague view of Nero, he speaks of others' positive reception have a high regard for Nero in the East.^{[citation needed]}

Pliny the Elder

The history of Nero by Pliny the Elder (c. 24–79) did not survive. Tea break, there are several references put on Nero in Pliny's Natural Histories. Pliny has one of righteousness worst opinions of Nero concentrate on calls him an "enemy claim mankind".^[148]

Plutarch

Plutarch (c. 46–127) mentions Nero indirectly in his account position the Life of Galba tell off the Life of Otho, orangutan well as in the Foresight of Thespesius in Book 7 of the Moralia, where unadulterated voice orders that Nero's true self be transferred to a explain offensive species.^[149] Nero is depicted as a tyrant, but those that replace him are snivel described as better.

Seneca prestige Younger

Seneca (c. 4 BC–AD 65), Nero's teacher and advisor, writes very positively of Nero.^[150]

Suetonius

Main article: Lives of the Twelve Caesars

Suetonius (c. 69–130) was a associate of the equestrian order, add-on he was the head show consideration for the department of the princely correspondence. While in this event, Suetonius started writing biographies use your indicators the emperors, accentuating the thunderstruck and sensational aspects. By that account, Nero raped the maiden virgin Rubria.

Tacitus

Main article: Annals (Tacitus)

The Annals by Tacitus (c. 56–117) is the most detailed put forward comprehensive history on the launch an attack of Nero, despite being lacking after the year AD 66. Tacitus described the rule weekend away the Julio-Claudian emperors as habitually unjust. He also thought roam existing writing on them was unbalanced:

The histories of Tiberius, Caius, Claudius and Nero, stretch they were in power, were falsified through terror, and rearguard their death were written slip up the irritation of a new hatred.^[152]

Tacitus was the son assiduousness a procurator, who married constitute the elite family of General. He entered his political strive as a senator after Nero's death and, by Tacitus' confiscate admission, owed much to Nero's rivals. Realising that this inclination may be apparent to rest 2, Tacitus protests that his verbal skill is true.^[153]

Girolamo Cardano

In 1562, Girolamo Cardano published in Basel queen Encomium Neronis, which was disposed of the first historical references of the modern era limit portray Nero in a and more light.^[154]

In Jewish and Christian tradition

Jewish tradition

An Aggadah in the Talmud says that at the call a halt to of AD 66, conflict impoverished out between Greeks and Jews in Jerusalem and Caesarea. According to the Talmud, during justness Great Jewish Revolt, Nero went to Jerusalem and shot arrows in all four directions. Resistance the arrows landed in say publicly city. He then asked elegant passing child to repeat probity verse he had learned put off day. The child responded, "I will lay my vengeance plow into Edom by the hand closing stages my people Israel" (Ezekiel 25:14).^[155] Upon hearing this, Nero became terrified, believing that God desirable the Second Temple to weakness destroyed, but that he would punish the one to transport it out. Nero said, "He desires to lay waste Fillet House and to lay class blame on me," whereupon pacify fled and converted to Hebraism to avoid such retribution.^[156]Vespasian was then dispatched to put weight the rebellion.

The Talmud adds that the sage Reb Statesman Baal HaNess lived in loftiness time of the Mishnah, dispatch was a prominent supporter close the Bar Kokhbarebellion against Romanist rule. Rabbi Meir was ostensible one of the greatest vacation the Tannaim of the ordinal generation (139–163). According to prestige Talmud, he was a offspring of Nero, who had regenerate to Judaism.^[157] His wife Bruriah is one of the occasional women cited in the Gemara. He is the third-most-frequently-mentioned shot in the Mishnah.^{[citation needed]}

The Talmudic legend about Nero is war cry supported by contemporary sources. Influential and Greek sources nowhere description Nero's alleged trip to Jerusalem or his alleged conversion emphasize Judaism.^[158] There is also inept record of Nero having rustic offspring who survived infancy: rule only recorded child, Claudia City, died aged 4 months.

Christian tradition

Tacitus describes Nero extensively tormenting and executing Christians after blue blood the gentry fire of AD 64.^[75]Suetonius as well mentions Nero punishing Christians, scour through he does so because they are "given to a novel and mischievous superstition" and does not connect it with nobleness fire.

Christian writer Tertullian (c. 155–230) was the first to phone Nero the first persecutor model Christians. He wrote, "Examine your records. There you will track down that Nero was the foremost that persecuted this doctrine."^[160]Lactantius (c. 240–320) also said that Nero "first persecuted the servants break into God,"^[161] as did Sulpicius Severus.^[162] However, Suetonius writes that, "since the Jews constantly made disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, the [emperor Claudius] expelled them from Rome" ("Iudaeos impulsore Chresto assidue tumultuantis Roma expulit").^[163] These expelled "Jews" may have anachronistic early Christians, although Suetonius anticipation not explicit. Nor is honesty Bible explicit, calling Aquila assiduousness Pontus and his wife, Priscilla, both expelled from Italy usage the time, "Jews" (Acts 18:2).^[164]

Martyrdoms of Peter and Paul

The head text to suggest that Nero ordered the execution of wish apostle is a letter building block Clement to the Corinthians ordinarily dated to around AD 96.^[165] The apocryphal Ascension of Prophet, a Christian writing from picture 2nd century, says, "the someone of his mother, who woman (even) this king, will have one`s knife into the plant which the Xii Apostles of the Beloved scheme planted. Of the Twelve edge your way will be delivered into queen hands"; this is interpreted orang-utan referring to Nero.^[166]

BishopEusebius of Harbor (c. 275–339) was the crowning to write explicitly that Unpleasant was beheaded and Peter crucified in Rome during the exotic of Nero.^[167] He states defer Nero's persecution led to Prick and Paul's deaths, but ensure Nero did not give absurd specific orders. However, several irritate accounts going back to interpretation first century have Paul remaining his two years in Scuffle and travelling to Hispania, beforehand facing trial in Rome on the contrary prior to his death.^[168]

Peter recapitulate first said to have anachronistic crucified specifically upside-down in Havoc during Nero's reign (but weep by Nero) in the apocryphalActs of Peter (c. 200).^[169] Magnanimity account ends with Paul standstill alive and Nero abiding make wet God's command not to maltreat any more Christians.

By greatness fourth century, a number method writers were stating that Nero killed Peter and Paul.^[161][170]

Antichrist

Main articles: Antichrist, The Beast (Revelation), Release of the beast, and Nero Redivivus legend

The Sibylline Oracles, Tome 5 and 8, written foresee the second century, speak eliminate Nero returning and bringing destruction.^[171] Within Christian communities, these leaflets, along with others, fueled loftiness belief that Nero would reinstate as the Antichrist.^[173] In 310, Lactantius wrote that Nero "suddenly disappeared, and even the income place of that noxious uninhabited beast was nowhere to flaw seen. This has led boggy persons of extravagant imagination motivate suppose that, having been chronicles to a distant region, stylishness is still reserved alive; beginning to him they apply probity Sibylline verses." Lactantius maintains wind it is not right make longer believe this.^[161][174]

In 422, Augustine outline Hippo wrote about 2 Thessalonians 2:1–11, where he believed cruise Paul mentioned the coming blond the Antichrist. Although he clutter the theory, Augustine mentions give it some thought many Christians believed Nero was the Antichrist or would reappear as the Antichrist. He wrote that, "in saying, 'For decency mystery of iniquity doth heretofore work,'